Food Processing Technology,
Edition 5 Principles and PracticeEditors: By P.J. Fellows
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Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice, Fifth Edition includes emerging trends and developments in food processing. The book has been fully updated to provide comprehensive, up-to-date technical information. For each food processing unit operation, theory and principles are first described, followed by equipment used commercially and its operating conditions, the effects of the operation on micro-organisms, and the nutritional and sensory qualities of the foods concerned. Part I describes basic concepts; Part II describes operations that take place at ambient temperature; Part III describes processing using heat; Part IV describes processing by removing heat; and Part V describes post-processing operations.
This book continues to be the most comprehensive reference in the field, covering all processing unit operations in a single volume. The title brings key terms and definitions, sample problems, recommended further readings and illustrated processes.
Key Features
- Presents current trends on food sustainability, environmental considerations, changing consumer choices, reduced packaging and energy use, and functional and healthy/plant-based foods
- Includes highly illustrated line drawings and/or photographs to show the principles of equipment operation and/or examples of equipment that is used commercially
- Contains worked examples of common calculations
About the author
By P.J. Fellows, Visiting Fellow, Oxford Brookes University, UK
PART I - BASIC PRINCIPLES
1 Properties of foods
1.1 Physical properties
1.1.1 Density and specific gravity
1.1.2 Viscosity
1.1.3 Surface activity
1.1.4 Water activity
1.2 Biochemical properties
1.2.1 Acids, bases and pH
1.2.2 Redox potential
2.1 Principles of processing
2.2 Mass transfer and mass balances
2.3 Fluid flow
2.4 Phase and glass transitions
2.5 Heat transfer
2.5.1 Thermal properties of foods and other materials
2.5.2 Types of heat transfer
2.5.3 Types of heat exchangers
2.5.4 Effects of heat on micro-organisms
2.5.5 Effects of heat on food components
2.6 Linking unit operations to form processes
References
Recommended further reading
PART II: AMBIENT-TEMPERATURE PROCESSING
2 Raw material preparation
2.1 Cooling crops and carcasses
2.1.1 Theory
2.1.2 Hydrocooling equipment
2.2 Cleaning foods
2.2.1 Wet cleaning
2.2.2 Dry methods of cleaning
2.3 Sorting and grading
2.3.1 Shape and size sorting
2.3.2 Weight sorting
2.3.3 Colour and machine vision sorting and grading systems
2.3.4 Other types of grader
2.4 Peeling and coring
References
Recommended further reading
3 Extraction and separation of food components
3.1 Centrifugation
3.1.1 Theory
3.1.2 Equipment
3.2 Filtration
3.2.1 Theory
3.2.2 Equipment
3.3 Expression
3.3.1 Theory
3.3.2 Equipment
3.4 Extraction using solvents
3.4.1 Theory
3.4.2 Solvents
3.4.3 Equipment
3.5 Membrane separation
3.5.1 Theory
3.5.2 Equipment and applications
3.5.3 Types of membrane systems
3.6 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
4 Size reduction
4.1 Size reduction of solid foods
4.1.1 Theory
4.1.2 Equipment
4.1.3 Developments in size reduction technology
4.1.4 Effects on foods
4.1.5 Effects on micro-organisms
4.2 Size reduction in liquid foods
4.2.1 Theory
4.2.2 Emulsifying agents and stabilisers
4.2.3 Equipment
4.2.4 Effects on foods
4.2.5 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
5 Mixing, forming and coating
5.1 Mixing
5.1.1 Theory of solids mixing
5.1.2 Theory of liquids mixing
5.1.3 Gas blending
5.1.4 Equipment
5.1.5 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
5.2 Forming
5.2.1 Bread moulders
5.2.2 Pie, tart and biscuit formers
5.2.3 Confectionery moulders and depositors
5.2.4 Cold extrusion
5.3 Coating foods
5.3.1 Coating materials
5.3.2 Equipment
5.3.3 Microencapsulation
5.3.4 Edible barrier coatings
References
Recommended further reading
6 Food biotechnology
6.1 Fermentation technology
6.1.1 Theory
6.1.2 Equipment for submerged and solid substrate fermentations
6.1.3 Examples of commercial food fermentations
6.1.4 Effects on foods
6.2 Microbial Enzymes
6.2.1 Novel enzyme technologies
6.3 Bacteriocins and antimicrobial ingredients
6.3.1 Chitin and chitosans
6.4 Functional foods
6.4.1 Probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic foods
6.5 Genetic modification
6.5.1 GM food crops
6.5.2 Genetically modified micro-organisms (GMMs) and their products
6.5.3 Marker assisted selection
6.6 Nutritional genomics
References
Recommended further reading
7 Minimal processing
7.1 Introduction
7.2 High Pressure processing
7.2.1 Introduction
7.2.2 Theory
7.2.3 Equipment and operation
7.2.4 Process developments
7.2.5 Packaging
7.2.6 Effects on food components
7.2.7 Effects on enzymes
7.2.8 Inactivation of micro-organisms
7.2.9 Regulation
7.2.10 Applications
7.3 Power ultrasound
7.3.1 Theory
7.3.2 Processing equipment
7.3.3 Process developments
7.3.4 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
7.4 Pulsed electric fields
7.4.1 Theory
7.4.2 Equipment
7.4.3 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
7.4.4 Combinations of PEF and other treatments
7.5 Electric arc discharges and cold plasma
7.5.1 Theory
7.5.2 Equipment and operation
7.5.3 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
7.6 Oscillating magnetic fields
7.6.1 Theory
7.6.2 Equipment and operation
7.6.3 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
7.7 Pulsed light and ultraviolet light
7.7.1 Theory
7.7.2 Equipment
7.7.3 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
7.7.4 Regulation and use
7.8 Pulsed X-rays
7.8.1 Theory
7.8.2 Equipment and operation
7.8.3 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
7.9 Irradiation
7.9.1 Introduction
7.9.2 Theory
7.9.3 Equipment
7.9.4 Measurement of radiation dose
7.9.5 Detection of irradiated foods
7.9.6 Applications
7.9.7 Effects on foods
7.9.8 Effects on micro-organisms
7.9.9 Effects on packaging
7.10 Ozone
7.10.1 Ozone production and use
7.10.2 Antimicrobial activity
7.10.3 Processing applications
7.10.4 Limitations and potential toxicity
7.11 Dense-phase carbon dioxide
7.11.1 Theory
7.11.2 Equipment and operation
7.11.3 Effects on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
References
Recommended further reading
PART III: PROCESSING BY APPLICATION OF HEAT
Processing using steam or water
8 Blanching
8.1 Theory
8.2 Equipment
8.2.1 Steam blanchers
8.2.2 Hot-water blanchers
8.2.3 Newer blanching methods
8.3 Effects on Foods
8.4 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
9 Industrial cooking
9.1 Cooking using moist heat
9.1.1 Equipment
9.2 Sous-vide cooking
9.2.1 Theory
9.2.2 Processing
9.2.3 Effects on foods
9.3 Cooking using dry heat
9.3.1 Equipment
References
Recommended further reading
10 Pasteurisation
10.1 Theory
10.2 Equipment
10.2.1 Pasteurisation of packaged foods
10.2.2 Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids
10.2.3 Novel pasteurisation methods
10.3 Effects on foods
References
Recommended further reading
11 Heat sterilisation
11.1 In-container sterilisation
11.1.1 Theory
11.1.2 Retorting
11.1.3 Equipment
11.2 Ultra high-temperature (UHT)/aseptic processes
11.2.1 Theory
11.2.2 Processing and equipment
11.2.3 Equipment
11.3 Effects on foods
11.3.1 Canning
11.3.2 UHT processing
References
Recommended further reading
12 Evaporation and distillation
12.1 Evaporation
12.1.1 Theory
12.1.2 Improving the economics of evaporation
12.1.3 Equipment
12.1.4 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
12.2 Distillation
12.2.1 Theory
12.2.2 Equipment
12.2.3 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
Processing using hot air or heated surfaces
13 Dehydration
13.1 Theory
13.1.1 Drying using heated air
13.1.2 Drying using heated surfaces
13.2 Equipment
13.2.1 Hot-air dryers
13.2.2 Heated-surface (or contact) dryers
13.3 Control of dryers
13.4 Rehydration
13.5 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
13.5.1 Sensory properties
13.5.2 Nutritional value
13.5.3 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
14 Smoking
14.1 Theory
14.1.1 Constituents in smoke
14.1.2 Tasteless smoke
14.1.3 Liquid smoke
14.2 Processing
14.2.1 Equipment
14.3 Effects on foods
14.4 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
15 Baking and roasting
15.1 Theory
15.2 Equipment
15.2.1 Batch and semi-continuous ovens and roasters
15.2.2 Continuous ovens and roasters
15.2.3 Control of ovens
15.3 Effects on foods
15.4 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
16 Extrusion cooking
16.1 Theory
16.1.1 Properties of ingredients
16.1.2 Extruder operating characteristics
16.2 Equipment
16.2.1 Single-screw extruders
16.2.2 Twin-screw extruders
16.2.3 Control of extruders
16.3 Applications
16.3.1 Confectionery products
16.3.2 Cereal products
16.3.3 Protein-based foods
16.4 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
16.4.1 Sensory characteristics
16.4.2 Nutritional value
16.4.3 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
Processing using hot oils
17 Frying
17.1 Theory
17.1.1 Heat and mass transfer
17.1.2 Frying time and temperature
17.1.3 Oil absorption
17.2 Equipment
17.2.1 Atmospheric fryers
17.2.2 Vacuum and pressure fryers
17.2.3 Control of fryer operation, oil filtration and heat recovery
17.3 Types of oils used for frying
17.4 Effects of frying on oils
17.5 Effects of frying on foods
17.6 Effects of frying on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
Electromagnetic processing using direct and radiated energy
18 Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating
18.1 Dielectric heating
18.1.1 Theory
18.1.2 Equipment
18.1.3 Applications
18.1.4 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
18.2 Ohmic Heating
18.2.1 Theory
18.2.2 Equipment and applications
18.2.3 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
18.3 Infrared heating
18.3.1 Theory
18.3.2 Equipment and applications
18.3.3 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
PART IV: PROCESSING BY REMOVAL OF HEAT
19 Heat removal by refrigeration
19.1 Theory
19.1.1 Refrigerants and cryogens
19.1.2 Magnetic refrigeration
19.1.3 The refrigeration cycle
19.2 Equipment
19.2.1 Control of mechanical refrigerators
19.2.2 Temperature monitoring
References
Recommended further reading
21 Chilling
21.1 Theory
21.2 Equipment
21.2.1 Mechanical chillers
21.2.2 Cryogenic chillers
21.2.3 Other methods of chilling
21.3 Applications to processed foods
21.3.1 Cook-chill systems
21.4 Effects on sensory and nutritional qualities of foods
21.5 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
22 Freezing
22.1 Theory
22.1.1 Ice crystal formation
22.1.2 Solute concentration
22.1.3 Calculation of freezing time
22.1.4 Thawing
22.2 Equipment
22.2.1 Mechanical freezers
22.2.2 Cryogenic freezers
22.2.3 Developments in freezing technologies
22.3 Effects on foods
22.3.1 Freezing
22.3.2 Frozen storage
22.3.3 Thawing
22.4 Effects on micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
23 Freeze Drying and Freeze Concentration
23.1 Freeze drying
23.1.1 Theory
23.1.2 Equipment
23.1.3 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
23.2 Freeze concentration
23.2.1 Theory
23.2.2 Equipment
23.2.3 Effects on foods and micro-organisms
References
Recommended further reading
PART V POST-PROCESSING OPERATIONS
24 Packaging
24.1 Theory
24.1.1 Factors affecting the selection of a packaging material
24.1.2 Interactions between packaging and foods
24.2 Types of packaging materials
24.2.1 Textiles and wood
24.2.2 Metal
24.2.3 Glass
24.2.4 Flexible films
24.2.5 Paper and board
24.2.6 Combined packaging systems
24.3 Packaging materials for modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
24.3.1 Effects on micro-organisms
24.4 Printing
24.4.1 Bar codes and other markings
24.5 Packaging developments
24.5.1 Edible and biodegradable packaging
24.5.2 Nanotechnology
24.5.3 Active and intelligent packaging
24.6 Environmental and regulatory considerations
24.6.1 Reductions in use of energy and materials
24.6.2 Re-use and recycling
24.6.3 Lifecycle analysis
References
Recommended further reading
25 Filling and sealing of containers
25.1 Rigid and semi-rigid containers
25.1.1 Filling
25.1.2 Sealing
25.2 Flexible containers
25.2.1 Form-fill-sealing
25.3 Twist-wrapping
25.4 Shrink-wrapping and stretch-wrapping
25.5 Tamper-evident packaging
25.6 Labelling
25.7 Checkweighing
25.8 Metal detection
References
Recommended further reading
26 Materials handling, storage and distribution
26.1 Materials handling
26.1.1 Solids handling methods
26.1.2 Liquid handling methods
26.2 Storage
26.2.1 Ambient storage
26.2.2 Temperature-controlled storage
26.2.3 Modified and controlled atmosphere storage
26.3 Logistics and control of storage and distribution
References
Recommended further reading
ANNEXES (on associated website)
Annex A. Food components
A1 Structure of food macromolecules
A1.1 Carbohydrates
A1.2 Lipids
A1.3 Amino acids and proteins
A2 Composition of foods
A2.1 Carbohydrates
A2.2 Lipids
A2.3 Proteins
A2.4 Water
A2.5 Vitamins
A2.6 Minerals
A2.7 Colourants and pigments
A2.8 Antioxidants
A2.9 Preservatives
A2.10 Natural toxicants
A3 Functional components of foods
Annex B Micro-organisms and enzymes
B1 Spoilage micro-organisms
B2 Pathogens
B2 Viruses
B3 Enzymes from GM micro-organisms
B4 Examples of food fermentations
Annex C. Quality assurance
C1 Food quality and shelf life
C1.1 Quality attributes
C1.2 Food safety
C1.3 Hurdle concepts
C1.4 Shelf life assessment
C1.5 Date marking
C1.6 Food authenticity and traceability
C2 Management of food quality and safety
C2.1 HACCP and prerequisite programmes
C2.2 Process monitoring and control
C2.3.1 Sensors
C2.3.2 Process analytical technology and quality by design
C2.3.3 Process controllers
C2.4 Neural networks and fuzzy logic
C3 Hygienic design and cleaning of processing facilities and equipment
C3.1 Hygienic design
C3.2 Cleaning and sanitation
C3.3 Water and waste management
Annex D. Glossary, acronyms, symbols
D1. Glossary
D2. List of acronyms
D3. Symbols
Annex E. Units and conversions
Students & lecturers on courses in microbiology, food marketing and distribution, nutrition, consumer science, hospitality management/ catering and agricultural sciences. Researchers in food science, food chemistry, food engineering, microbiology, biotechnology. Reference book for food industry professionals.
